Post-disaster Reconstruction Projects Research Articles

A Framework to Assess Possible Sources of Stakeholder Exploitation: A Developing Country Case

Solving complex post-disaster reconstruction challenges requires the altruistic involvement of heterogeneous stakeholder groups. However, small, more organized groups, such as government parastatals, private developers, and contractors often exploit large, unorganized groups, such as affected communities, leaving them more vulnerable to future disasters. Based on data collected from a case study in Pakistan, this study proposed a framework to assess, anticipate, and mitigate the exploitation of vulnerable stakeholders in post-disaster reconstruction projects. The framework draws on influential management theories and utilizes reciprocal relationships between stakeholder attributes (power, legitimacy, and urgency), participation, and exploitation. The study also argued for non-binary treatment of stakeholder attributes. The framework will allow practitioners to address issues around the exploitation of stakeholder interests in future post-disaster reconstruction projects.

A Comprehensive Assessment of Buildings for Post-Disaster Sustainable Reconstruction: A Case Study of Beirut Port

Natural and man-made disasters constitute a considerable threat to humans, especially when intertwined with complex geopolitical situations. Effective decision-making and management during post-disaster reconstruction projects should be based on an effective assessment of damages caused by disasters by considering social, economic, and environmental factors. An analysis of prior research on post-disaster assessment reveals a predominant focus on physical indicators. However, recognizing the crucial role of socio-economic factors in the post-disaster reconstruction process, this paper introduces a comprehensive methodology for evaluating disaster-related damages by considering both physical and socio-economic factors. The proposed method is initiated by identifying relevant physical and socio-economic indicators. These indicators are then synthesized based on the local context and experts’ opinions to derive the Physical Priority Index (PPI) and Socio-Economic Priority Index (SEPI). These indices subsequently guide the prioritization of reconstruction efforts, aligning with the decision-makers’ strategic vision. This method was employed to assess damages stemming from the Beirut port disaster, utilizing three physical indicators and nine socio-economic indicators. The examination of the PPI and SEPI of a major area of Beirut port did not unveil a straightforward correlation between these two indices. The low correlation between these indices increases the complexity of decision-making. However, given the profound socio-economic challenges in Lebanon, this paper recommends placing a higher emphasis on SEPI in the decision-making process. Nevertheless, stakeholders retain the flexibility to tailor their approach by combining PPI and SEPI indicators according to their policies. This adaptive approach ensures a nuanced and contextually relevant decision-making framework.

Fundamental Challenges and Management Opportunities in Post Disaster Reconstruction Project

The study examines the root causes of delays that the project manager is unable to resolve or how the decision-maker can identify the best opportunities to get over these obstacles by considering the project constraints defined as the project triangle (cost, time, and quality) in post-disaster reconstruction projects to review the real challenges to overcome these obstacles. The methodology relied on the exploratory description and qualitative data examined. 43 valid questionnaires were distributed to qualified experienced engineers. A list of 49 factors causes was collected from previous international and local studies. A Relative Important Index (RII) is adapted to determine the level of importance of each sub-criterion in the four main criteria (scope, time, cost, and quality) to represent the causing changes in projects. The concluded 13 important factors represent the challenges faced by managers. This process requires active participation in the management role to overcome potential delays that face a great challenge and cause huge waves of displacement that affect the Iraqi economy and lead to social and environmental modifications. Reconstruction projects create jobs, improve the quality of life, and encourage people to return to their homes and rebuild their cities. So, unlocking local potential is the key to sustainable rebuilding in Iraq. Doi: 10.28991/CEJ-2023-09-09-05 Full Text: PDF

Evolution of post-disaster reconstruction policy framework in Sri Lanka: A longitudinal case study

Due to the increased intensity of disasters, in the last decade, Sri Lanka has given special attention to Post-Disaster Reconstruction (PDR) policies. With the intention of achieving increased outcomes in production, the government of Sri Lanka revised these policy frameworks periodically, taking into account different social, economic, and cultural aspects, as well as other implementation issues. However, investigations on the transformation of these PDR policies within the last 15 years and their impact on the PDR project success is yet to be exposed by providing insights to future policymakers. The present study aimed to address this gap by conducting a longitudinal case study in exploring PDR policy progress in Sri Lanka from 2005 to 2021. The findings disclosed that the policy changes related to ownership, beneficiary selection and reconstruction have many positive consequences while resettlement and disaster-resilient policies need to be more developed in terms of community considerations. Therefore, it can be expressed that the policy evolution in Sri Lanka is more towards a positive direction while some features still need to be improved in future for more successful outcomes.

Addressing community participation barriers using emic-etic perspectives

Post-Disaster reconstruction projects often face many challenges, due to inadequacies of community participation. While active community participation directly influences project outcome, factors that restrict or facilitate their involvement are yet to be addressed. Using emic-etic perspectives from two case studies, this paper identifies the factors that act as barriers to community participation. The findings disclosed that it is not only non-community stakeholders who instil barriers to limit community participation – termed as external barriers – but the communities themselves also play a role in restricting their own involvement – termed as internal barriers. The study identified 21 participation barriers and classified them into four external barriers categories – behavioural, regulatory, communication, and integrity – and two internal barriers categories – socio-cultural, and capacity. The articulation of these barriers will help decision-makers address community participation issues and will enable them to achieve reconstruction objectives.

Developing an integrated model for planning the delivery of construction materials to post-disaster reconstruction projects

AbstractConstruction material delivery to post-disaster reconstruction projects is challenging because of the resource and time limitations that follow a large-scale disaster. There is compelling evidence that inadequate planning jeopardises the success of a large number of post-disaster reconstruction projects. Thus, the current study proposes an integrated approach to facilitate the procurement planning of construction materials following a large-scale disaster. The proposed approach clustered the location of construction projects using a differential evolution (DE)-K-prototypes, a new partitional clustering algorithm based on DE and K-prototypes, method. Then, using a permanent matrix prioritises cluster points based on route reliability-affecting factors. The model’s objectives are to minimise the total travel time, maximise the reliability of the route, and minimise the total weighted undelivered materials to projects. In the case of distribution of material through land vehicles, the possibility of breakdowns in the vehicle is considered, allowing for the determination of vehicle breakdown under various scenarios and the minimisation of undelivered materials to projects. As a result of the uncertain character of the disaster, the demands of construction projects are fuzzy, and Jimenez’s method is used to handle it. Due to the complexity of the problem, two algorithms are proposed, a multi-objective evolutionary algorithm based on decomposition (MOEA/D) and a non-dominated sorting genetic algorithm-II (NSGA-II). The results confirm that the proposed MOEA/D has a higher accuracy while NSGA-II has a shorter computational time. By providing new theoretical perspectives on disaster recovery strategies in the construction sector, this study contributes to the growing body of knowledge about disaster recovery strategies in the sector. The findings of this study can be employed to develop an integrated planning system for the delivery of construction materials to post-disaster reconstruction projects in disaster-prone countries.

Process optimization for post disaster reconstruction project based on industrial design structure matrix (DSM)

Post-disaster reconstruction projects face tighter time constraints and are in a more complex environment, making the implementation process of conventional projects unable to meet new requirements. This study decomposes the construction process and then determines the feed-forward and feedback relationship between activities in the post-disaster reconstruction environment. An information relationship diagram is established, and the relationship is transformed into a design structure matrix (DSM). Through DSM manipulation, a partitioned DSM is formed to express the activity process that is more suitable for reconstruction. This research shows that the activities sequence and content need to be changed to adapt to the reconstruction scenario, and some activities may even be canceled. Some suggestions can help construct the project faster, including closer cooperation between design and construction. The bidding scope includes design and construction and the use of more integrated project delivery methods. Finally, a reconstruction case in China illustrates the operability of analyzing and adjusting the implementation process through this framework.

Providing a framework for post-disaster resilience factors in buildings and infrastructure from end-users’ perspectives: case study in Caribbean island states

Purpose The purpose of this paper is to elicit the expectations for resilient post-disaster rebuilds from Caribbean project end-users. In anticipation of future climatological, meteorological, hydrological or geophysical disasters disaster, key stakeholders can articulate and incorporate strategies for resilience development, thus leading to improved end-users’ satisfaction and confidence. Design/methodology/approach This paper engages the results of a systematic literature review that identified 24 empirical resilience factors for post-disaster reconstruction projects. These factors informed a semi-structured questionnaire to elicit the perspectives of Caribbean end-users on a seven-point Likert scale. The quantitative analysis of both factor ranking and principal component analysis was performed to identify correlations and provides further interpretations on the desires of the end-users for resilient rebuilds. Findings The results presented in this paper highlight the collective perspectives on the Caribbean end-users on what they perceived to be aiding more resilient reconstruction projects. They identified reconstruction designs mindful of future hazards, policies that aid climate change mitigation, active assessment of key structures, readily available funding sources and ensuring stakeholder’s unbiased interest as the top-most empirical factors. Factor analysis suggested collaborations with inclusive training and multi-stakeholder engagement, critical infrastructure indexing and effective governance as the critical resilience development factors. Originality/value To the best of the authors’ knowledge, this paper is first of its kind to explore the perspective of the Caribbean people regarding disaster reconstruction projects. It addresses developmental avenues for measurement indicators towards resilience monitoring and improvement. Additionally, the perspectives can provide construction industry professionals with tools for improved operational resilience objective-setting guidance, for Caribbean construction.

Prioritizing Post-Disaster Reconstruction Projects Using an Integrated Multi-Criteria Decision-Making Approach: A Case Study

As the destructive impacts of both human-made and natural disasters on societies and built environments are predicted to increase in the future, innovative disaster management strategies to cope with emergency conditions are becoming more crucial. After a disaster, selecting the most critical post-disaster reconstruction projects among available projects is a challenging decision due to resource constraints. There is strong evidence that the success of many post-disaster reconstruction projects is compromised by inappropriate decisions when choosing the most critical projects. Therefore, this study presents an integrated approach based on four multi-criteria decision-making (MCDM) techniques, namely, TOPSIS, ELECTRE III, VIKOR, and PROMETHEE, to aid decision makers in prioritizing post-disaster projects. Furthermore, an aggregation approach (linear assignment) is used to generate the final ranking vector since various methods may provide different outcomes. In the first stage, 21 criteria were determined based on sustainability. To validate the performance of the proposed approach, the obtained results were compared to the results of an artificial neural network (ANN) algorithm, which was applied to predict the projects’ success rates. A case study was used to assess the application of the proposed model. The obtained results show that in the selected case, the most critical criteria in post-disaster project selection are quality, robustness, and customer satisfaction. The findings of this study can contribute to the growing body of knowledge about disaster management strategies and have implications for key stakeholders involved in post-disaster reconstruction projects. Furthermore, this study provides valuable information for national decision makers in countries that have limited experience with disasters and where the destructive consequences of disasters on the built environment are increasing.

Suggestions for large-scale, postdisaster reconstruction involving indigenous populations: a participatory approach to recovery after Typhoon Morakot

PurposeThe participatory method, a major factor for a successful post-disaster reconstruction (PDR) project, is applied in various stages of the PDR. However, the application of this method for PDR involving indigenous populations is underexplored. Therefore, this paper aims to analyze the critical factors that can influence the participatory PDR in the indigenous context.Design/methodology/approachTwo large-scale, indigenous, post-disaster relocation projects after the 2009 Typhoon Morakot were selected as case studies. The qualitative and quantitative methodology (semi-structured interview and questionnaire) were applied in the research.FindingsA participation-friendly policy, community organization, the extent of damage, flexibility of nongovernmental organizations, understanding of the participatory concept and mutual trust were found to be essential factors that profoundly influence participation in PDR projects.Originality/valueThis study contributes by providing guidelines for future participatory PDR projects, especially in the indigenous context.

A conceptual framework for managing post-disaster reconstruction projects in emerging economies: the case of Angola

PurposeThis study develops a conceptual framework appropriate for managing Post-Disaster Reconstruction Projects (PDRPs) so as to avoid cost and time overruns in Angola.Design/methodology/approachAn explanatory sequential mixed research approach was used. Data was collected from project participants within the ministry of planning, the provincial government office of planning and the local government in Angola. A questionnaire with closed questions was completed by 130 survey respondents. Semi-structured focus group interviews were conducted with seven participants selected through purposive sampling. Descriptive statistics, t-test and content analysis were used to analyse quantitative and qualitative data, respectively.FindingsThe study indicates that there is presently no formal project management process. Neither have government project management standards been developed and broadcast. This results in ad hoc processes being mostly used for managing PDRPs. The study further presents disaster preparation programme, community engagement, resources and stakeholder's engagement, post-disaster procurement policies, financial guides, post-disaster recovery legislation, context-specific (social economic, demographic, political and cultural variables), programme preparation as essential components to be considered for developing an appropriate framework for managing PDRPs.Research limitations/implicationsThe study is limited by its geographical settings which focussed the results on one province in Angola. However, the findings can be useful for other countries wishing to gain insights on the framework with “overlooked components” for managing DPRPs in emerging countries with similar disaster environment, government policies and same business environment.Practical implicationsThe framework for managing PDRPs may positively impact project realization, hence minimization of time and cost overruns. The findings are vital for managers, local practitioners and policy/decision-makers in emerging countries of essential components and lessons useful for managing PDRPs and making decisions when they intend to participate in such projects. An understanding of which approaches are critical and essential components of the framework serves as a basis for improving project delivery. Future research studies should describe its practical application.Originality/valueThe study provides insights by identifying an ordered grouped set of project management models/approaches mostly applicable for managing PDRPs in Angola, better understanding of appropriate components/variables to be considered and develops a conceptual framework for managing PDRPs in emerging countries, post-war context.

Monitoring the Work Cycles of Earthmoving Excavators in Earthmoving Projects Using UAV Remote Sensing

Monitoring the work cycles of earthmoving excavators is an important aspect of construction productivity assessment. Currently, the most advanced method for the recognition of work cycles is the “Stretching-Bending” Sequential Pattern (SBSP), which is based on fixed-carrier video monitoring (FC-SBSP). However, the application of this method presupposes the availability of preconstructed installation carriers to act as a surveillance camera as well as installed and commissioned surveillance systems that work in tandem with them. Obviously, this method is difficult to apply to projects with no conditions for a monitoring camera installation or which have a short construction time. This highlights the potential application of Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV) remote sensing, which is flexible and mobile. Unfortunately, few studies have been conducted on the application of UAV remote sensing for the work cycle monitoring of earthmoving excavators. This research is necessary because the use of UAV remote sensing for monitoring the work cycles of earthmoving excavators can improve construction productivity and save time and costs, especially in post-disaster reconstruction projects involving harsh construction environments, and emergency projects with short construction periods. In addition, the challenges posed by UAV shaking may have to be taken into account when using the SBSP for UAV remote sensing. To this end, this study used application experiments in which stabilization processing of UAV video data was performed for UAV shaking. The application experimental results show that the work cycle performance of UAV remote-sensing-based SBSP (UAV-SBSP) for UAV video data was 2.45% and 5.36% lower in terms of precision and recall, respectively, without stabilization processing than after stabilization processing. Comparative experiments were also designed to investigate the applicability of the SBSP oriented toward UAV remote sensing. Comparative experimental results show that the same level of performance was obtained for the recognition of work cycles with the UAV-SBSP as compared with the FC-SBSP, demonstrating the good applicability of this method. Therefore, the results of this study show that UAV remote sensing enables effective monitoring of earthmoving excavator work cycles in construction sites where monitoring cameras are not available for installation, and it can be used as an alternative technology to fixed-carrier video monitoring for onsite proximity monitoring.

Challenges of Post-Disaster Reconstruction Projects: An Empirical Investigation According to Project Management Knowledge Areas

Successful management of post-disaster reconstruction projects (PDRPs) can ensure the efficient use of resources and lead to improved outcomes. The literature on PDRP management is yet in its embryonic stage and systematic research efforts are necessary to address the topic. Paper compares the challenges faced in conventional projects to those in PDRPs according to project management knowledge areas, through an analytical evaluation of the interdependencies between different areas of expertise. A descriptive-exploratory research was designed and qualitative data from interviews with 11 managers with PDRP experience from different countries were analysed. Cause-and-effect relationships between the factors leading to ‘frequent changes in scope,’ ‘time overruns,’ ‘cost overruns,’ and ‘low quality’ were identified. Outputs suggest that managing stakeholders, risks and communications appears critical to cope with an evolving scope, while procurement management has a significant impact on project outcomes due to resource scarcity.

A systematic review of factors affecting post-disaster reconstruction projects resilience

PurposeThe purpose of this paper is to investigate the literature on resilience factors applied to post-disaster reconstruction projects and to develop a guiding framework to assist in their strategic selection and application.Design/methodology/approachA systematic review was undertaken on the literature’s account in four major bibliographic databases to elicit resilience factors contributing to improving post-disaster reconstruction projects' robustness. Through summative content analysis and open-coding of research outputs over the past decade, the factors identified informed the development of a conceptual framework that can significantly impact the built environment’s resilience development process.FindingsThe review found 24 resilience factors open-coded into five criteria groups: governance, innovations, reconstruction approaches, resource management and stakeholder expectations. While these factors have influenced reconstruction projects, the recently increased participation of clients and end-users in construction management accentuates their strategic selection and applications.Research limitations/implicationsThe research focused on English language articles; therefore, any claim to a comprehensive resilience factors listing can be amiss. The framework provides a platform for developing clear measurement indicators for allocating project resources and determining resilience deficiencies.Practical implicationsResults confirm the designs and assessment of a resilient built environment extends beyond the traditional structural characteristics, but includes the ability of the integrated network of buildings and infrastructure to support the continuous delivery of the community’s social and economic services in normal and post-disaster settings.Originality/valueThe review is very specific as it attempts to develop a novel conceptual framework for guiding developers and practitioners in the application of resiliency to post-disaster reconstruction projects.

Comparing Client Values between Business-as-Usual Construction and Postdisaster Reconstruction

AbstractThe complexity and resources required for postdisaster reconstruction projects can present a formidable challenge for project participants. Exploring client values in a postdisaster situati...

Changes in ecosystem services in a montane landscape impacted by major earthquakes: A case study in Wenchuan earthquake-affected area, China

Earthquakes are one of the most serious natural disasters, threatening ecological balance and security. Ecosystem services (ESs) reflect the multiple functions of an ecosystem. However, based on catastrophic disasters, the contributions of various factors to ESs recovery have not been previously quantified. We follow recovery after the 2008 Wenchuan earthquake to gain insight into these processes. To quantify ESs, biophysical models were applied, including scenario simulation and Geodetector methods that were used to explore the driving forces. We concluded as follows: in overall study area, ESs showed an insignificant but undulating increase from 2001 to 2017, indicating the earthquake had slight but long-term effects. In the vegetated areas denuded by co-seismic landslides, the loss in ESs was twice that in non-denuded areas, and the damaged ESs did not recover to pre-earthquake levels by 2017. Overall, climate change was the main driving force, and the factors directly related to local climate had a more obvious impact on ESs especially elevation and geomorphic types. More than three quarters of study area showed ESs increases, with climate (accounting for 40.26%) and its multiple interactions with non-climate factors (accounting for 45.91%) contributed the most to ESs restoration, respectively at low elevations and in the subalpine mountains. Nearly a quarter of the study area was still degraded, of which the proportion of the area representing non-climate-driven factors had increased (accounting for 20.68%). The intensity of ESs degradation mainly concentrated in XI and X regions where co-seismic landslides were dense, which was one of the most influential non-climate factors. We therefore recommend that in the post-disaster reconstruction stage, more attention should be paid to restoration and maintenance of ecological service functions in areas with frequent secondary disasters, so as to maximize the benefits of post-disaster reconstruction projects and seek socio-economic and ecological environment collaborative development.

Improving Post-Disaster Housing Reconstruction Outcomes in the Global South: A Framework for Achieving Greater Beneficiary Satisfaction through Effective Community Consultation

The purpose of this paper was to examine the community consultation practices carried out by implementing agencies when managing post-disaster housing reconstruction (PDHR) projects, identify the obstacles they face, and evaluate the effect these obstacles have on the quality of information obtained in relation to achieving a high level of beneficiary satisfaction. The aim was to develop a framework for community consultation in PDHR, which ensures that the needs of beneficiaries are more accurately reflected in the housing produced. A qualitative research methodology was adopted with data first being obtained through a literature review of relevant publications and implementing agency reports as a means of establishing common themes among community consultation practices and identifying indicators that influence beneficiary satisfaction. This was followed by a case study analysis to further an understanding of how these indicators were affected by the community consultation practices undertaken in a real-world context. The results of the research indicate that community consultation often forms a central role in the planning and delivery of PDHR projects, however, despite the implementing agencies’ best intentions, there are often obstacles that prevent the process from achieving the desired result. The community consultation framework proposed here has been developed to address the identified obstacles with the aim of ensuring that beneficiary requirements are included in housing design as a means of improving the level of beneficiary satisfaction in the housing provided.

What do post-disaster reconstruction project success indicators look like? End-user’s perspectives

PurposeThis paper aims to investigate the emergence of new success measures for buildings and infrastructure post-disaster reconstruction projects, beyond the traditional ”iron triangle”, which have gained prominence with the increased involvement of clients and end-users in these projects. Consequently, the industry is obliged to reconsider the critical factors regarding what constitutes a successful outcome from the perspectives of these stakeholders.Design/methodology/approachData was gathered from end-users in four Caribbean islands using a questionnaire survey on eight empirical success indicators obtained from an extensive systematic literature review. To elicit a ranking and correlations amongst the end-user’ perspectives on the indicators, factor analysis and structural equation modelling techniques (SEM) were conducted.FindingsThe factor analysis found “safety” to be the most important empirical success measure, while “change” ranked the least important. Correlation analysis using SEM identified two new composite indicators, namely, “competence” with delivering timely and quality environmentally friendly and sustainable projects and “adaptability” in ensuring project objectives reflect beneficiaries’ expectations amidst internal and external influences, to be critical of end-users’ measurement indicators that describe their assessment mechanism. Measurement and structural models validated “safety” and “satisfaction” to be the highest loading variables in the two composites, respectively.Research limitations/implicationsThe research focussed on findings in English language articles; therefore, any claim to a complete list of indicators from the literature can be amiss.Practical implicationsResults confirm the traditional “iron triangle” of time, cost and quality to be limited in assessing reconstruction project outcomes and the views and expectations of the potential beneficiaries need to be factored in the planning, design, execution and post-handover stages in all reconstruction projects.Originality/valueThis paper was very specific in its attempt to investigate new success indicators for reconstruction project outcomes, aiming to assist with developing comprehensive project objectives that resonate with all stakeholder groups.

Causes of Problems in Post-Disaster Emergency Re-Construction Projects—Iraq as a Case Study

This study examines the causes of time delays and cost overruns in a selection of thirty post-disaster reconstruction projects in Iraq. Although delay factors have been studied in many countries and contexts, little data exists from countries under the conditions characterizing Iraq during the last 10-15 years. A case study approach was used, with thirty construction projects of different types and sizes selected from the Baghdad region. Project data was gathered from a survey which was used to build statistical relationships between time and cost delay ratios and delay factors in post disaster projects. The most important delay factors identified were contractor failure, redesigning of designs/plans and change orders, security issues, selection of low-price bids, weather factors, and owner failures. Some of these are in line with findings from similar studies in other countries and regions, but some are unique to the Iraqi project sample, such as security issues and low-price bid selection. While many studies have examined factors causing delays and cost overruns, this study offers unique insights into factors that need to be considered when implementing projects for post disaster emergency reconstruction in areas impacted by wars and terrorism.

Cultural issues of community resettlement in Post-Disaster Reconstruction projects in Sri Lanka

Resettlement is identified as a fundamental stage in Post- Disaster Reconstruction (PDR) projects, which has proved to be crucial in determining successful or unsuccessful performance in terms of community culture. Currently, Sri Lankan PDR projects are in more severe condition due to various challenges faced by the government while providing the resettlements. Good coordination between organizations involved in resettlement and the affected communities is still hard to achieve. This problem has led to socially and culturally inappropriate resettlement outcomes, which are criticized by the affected communities. Therefore, this study intends to address the community cultural issues that were emerged in the post disaster resettlement projects in Sri Lanka. Since the community culture in Sri Lanka is different from other countries, this study should be carried out by following a proper research methodology that has the capability of addressing the research problem in detail. The investigation has been carried out by examination of the cultural issues of post-disaster resettlement projects, which have severely affected for the unsuccessful outcomes of PDR projects. Tsunami and landslide resettlement projects have been selected as the two case materials. The community cultural issues in each case have been discussed with the experiences expressed by the disaster affected community and the professionals involved in the resettlement projects. The findings disclosed in detail that majority of disaster affected communities were not satisfied with resettlements due to various cultural issues related to cultural factors like ethnicity, religion, social environment, natural environment, livelihood and lifestyle. Therefore, proper consideration of those cultural factors by resolving the identified cultural issues may direct the resettlement of Sri Lankan PDR projects to achieve successful outcomes in community cultural perspective.